Organizational Development in HRD Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational Development in HRD - Case Study Example he lease by the state of Indiana through the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, mainly because of the economic strength of the investors. The Inn is operated as a separate business project, however, it does contribute to the sales of the marina as it is a lucrative business and is booked heavily in the season, which runs from Memorial Day weekend to Labor Day Weekend. Although the complex is operational year round, the sales decrease drastically after the Labor Day weekend. Jack Keltner has just recently replaced Leon McLaughlin as the general manager of the marina. He is also the accounting manager of the Inn. The Marina lacked any formal accounting checks till now, and Keltner has introduced certain changes and features to counter this problem. He has also proposed several improvements in the complex in order to increase the profits of the marina, which had just recently been going into loss. Strengths: The main strengths of the complex are its three docks to the left of the central dock, that is, E, F, and G. They are booked well in advance and there are waiting lists. The Inn is another lucrative business that augments the profits of the marina. It has the only showroom in the state with the biggest boats for sale, and is the largest marina of its kind in the country. Weaknesses: The main weakness is the lack of experience of the staff in the trade of marinas, especially the general managers; the former had experience in ship repair, and the current is an accountant. The three docks to the right, A, B, and C, are not rented to the full capacity. The rental boats are more in number than are required, with the average rental capacity around fifty percent. This means more labor for maintenance. The

Management Strategies Wal-Mart should undertake for Successful Global Essay

Management Strategies Wal-Mart should undertake for Successful Global Presence - Essay Example Decrease in government restriction resulted in increased opening up of the China retail market. Global retailers such as Wal-Mart took advantage and opened store in China. Though Wal-Mart started as a small, store in Arkansas, it spread rapidly and dominated the retail sector in United States. Wal-Mart’s founder, Walton, believed that discounting was crucial in retail business. He opened stores in neglected areas and sold goods at considerably cheap prices (Glass, 2012). The use of â€Å"Everyday low prices† gave Wal-Mart a competitive advantage over its competitors. Additionally, Wal-Mart developed a strong marketing culture such that it remained popular even when its competitors, Kmart and Woolco, closed down. However, Wal-Mart’s entry into China was not successful. China opened up its market for foreign retailers in 2005, which Wal-Mart saw as a great opportunity. This is because China’s thriving economy provided a great opportunity for profitable retailing. Despite Walton’s insistence on discount prices, Wal-Mart remained less popular in China (Farhoomand & Wang, 2006). One of the main drawback was the resignation of Cassian Chueng, the president of Wal-Mart China, which happened at the time when the entry plan was at the initial stages of implementation. Irrespective of being the world largest retailer, Wal-Mart is ranked at position twenty in China in terms of its sales (Glass, 2012; Wang, & Jha, 2011). One of issues facing Wal-Mart is managements’ refutation of employee’s unionization. Sam Walton opposed formation of union by War-Mart employee’s rights from the initial stages. ... The Wal-Mart employees have attempted to demand for salary increment and they feel that such grievances have not been clearly addressed (Wang, & Jha, 2011). To create a successful global presence and ensure the success of Wal-Mart in meeting its goals and mission, the management must address the issue of Unionization. This issue has been criticized strongly, which could affect Wal-Mart performance. Additionally, the success of any organization greatly depends on the level of satisfaction among the employees. It is thus inevitable that Wal-Mart should consider accommodation unionization to ensure the employees’ grievances are addressed accordingly (Glass, 2012; Farhoomand & Wang, 2006). Another issue that has affected Wal-Mart’s entry into China is their expansion strategy. In United States, Walton preferred opening stores in small towns, which gave Wal-Mart a competitive advantage. However, Chinas economic growth is more rampant in large cities, particularly those along the coastal region. It is thus significant for Wal-Mart to reconsider the positioning of its store in China. Although there are existing barriers such as resistance from China authorities to let Wal-Mart expand in large cities, the management should consider forming venture in such regions (Glass, 2012; Farhoomand & Wang, 2006). An alternative that would enable Wal-Mart to retain cheap prices and expand its operations would be to change their marketing strategies. The US market environment is quite different from that of China. This is mainly due to cultural differences. Wal-Mart should thus consider exposing its employees to Chinese culture to understand the needs of their consumer appropriately. As opposed to US where the

Knowing God Through Reason Or Faith Religion Essay

Knowing God Through Reason Or Faith Religion Essay The desire for mankind to know God, implicates that all humans are designed to have a conscience in them that enables communication with their creator, as stated in (Genesis 1: 27). This essay will explain both arguments of knowing God by faith or reason, examples relating to both sides will be given in order to draw a conclusion of how mankind know God. It can be argued that God can be known through both faith and reason, and this can be demonstrated in scripture and nature also known as Gods two books in which He writes about Himself. Deepak Chopra wrote God and Nature as all-pervading and very impersonal laws in the universe that order things. The secret to life, he claims, is to know these laws. The Bible testifies that God is spirit and He wants to fellowship with humans, according, to (John 4: 24). Since man is embodied in a physical body, an act of faith has to be applied in order to believe in an invisible God who has no physical body and therefore unseen. (Hebrews 11: 1) Now faith is the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction of things not seen. Faith considered to be a gift from God, is a spiritual inner substance in human beings that communicates an inner know that there is, though one cannot see. That is why faith is considered to be a spiritual act. Further, God proved Himself by incarnation being born of flesh as Jesus Christ and throughout the scriptures; faith is an important act that has to be applied by any believer. This was emphasised by Jesus Christ, the main representative of God on earth according to the Gospel of John. (John 1: 18) No one has ever seen God. It is God the only Son,  who is close to the Fathers heart, who has made him known. So this gives clarification that God Himself in incarnation came to witness to mankind about Him. God being Infinite, humans will never know His fullness, but through incarnation, Jesus Christ conveyed the greatest revelation of God to humans. A person who has faith pleases God according to scripture. Abraham was an example because he used faith to know and believe in God when he was asked to leave his fathers house and promised to become a father to many nations. It was God who went to Abraham, and told him who He was. (Genesis 17: 1) When Abram was ninety-nine years old, the Lord appeared to Abram, and said to him, I am God Almighty; walk before me, and be blameless. Reading about Abrahams testimony notifies the reader about the existence of God. On the other hand, through the Human eye and surroundings of the world, it is evident that God truly exists, according to some points to be drawn from some elements of natural theology such as science. Evidence is a key element in reasoning. In other words proof is needed to show that God exists. Reason is a thought or a consideration offered in support of a purpose e.g. creation gives reason to speculate how God looks like. Through His creation there is wisdom and knowledge that gives humankind the reason to know God through the natural order. Natural theology gives a deeper insight on how one can know God, by what surrounds them, for example natural resources and sciences. Thomas Aquinas analysed that, There exists a fundamental likeness to God within the created order as a consequence of God being the cause, in some sense of the word of all created things. In other words all things were created, they dont just happen to exist. Through, Gods wisdom and knowledge humans can discern Gods existence by things that occur around us regardless of their beliefs. For example, the birth of humans and their innate behaviour, or how plants grow from seeds. Science cannot give full explanation on how many things around us occur. Jean Bodin (1539-96) wrote, We have come into this theatre of the world f no other reason than to understand the admirable power, goodness and wisdom of the most excellent creator of all thingsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Thats why humans should appreciate the creator of such beauty displayed in the world through all creation, other than destroying the nature that was intended for human adoration. Theologians have described the manner in which God can be known through his nature. Hans Urs von Balthazar wrote, The category of beauty is to be reclaimed as a description of the revelation of God rather than some human category which can be applied to God. From a spiritual point of view, not everybody believes that God exists, the bible says, (Hebrews 11:6) And without faith it is impossible to please God, because anyone who comes to him must believe that He exists and that He rewards those who earnestly seek him. Apparently atheists do not believe in the existence of God in other words they dont have faith. Other aspects such as unanswered prayer can bring doubt to those who have little faith. But from a theological point of view, Karl Barth argued that natural theology wasnt an adequate way of knowing God as this would bring conditions of humanity knowing God under their own condition whence creating their own concept about God. A conclusion can be drawn from the above that Christians know God by faith and by visible evidence through the human eye, that indeed there is God. Even from human characteristics that are experienced through the flesh, lives no doubt in a human mind that God exists by both faith and reason. From a spiritual perspective, faith is very important to a Christian believer, because God demands this act in order to please Him. Finally God has made himself known in a  general sense  in the intriguing mechanisms of the created world, and he has revealed himself in a specific way  by means of the written documents of the Bible. Therefore faith and reason are not a conflict; rather they complement one another as two modes of knowing God, through the natural order, and sacred scripture.

Business Plan for Progressive Consulting Essay example -- GCSE Busines

Business Plan for Progressive Consulting 1. 0 Executive Summary Progressive Consulting will be formed as a consulting company specializing in marketing of high technology products in international markets. Its founders are former marketers of consulting services, personal computers, and market research, all in international markets. They are founding Progressive Consulting to formalize the consulting services they offer. 1. 2 Mission Progressive Consulting offers high-tech manufacturers a reliable, high quality alternative to in-house resources for business development, market development, and channel development on an international scale. A true alternative to in house resources offers a very high level of practical experience; know how, contacts, and confidentiality. Clients must know that working with Progressive Consulting is a more professional, less risky way to develop new areas even than working completely in house with their own people. Progressive Consulting must also be able to maintain financial balance, charging a high value for its services, and delivering an even higher value to its clients. Initial focus will be development in the European and Latin American markets, or for European clients in the United States market. 1. 3 Keys to Success Excellence in fulfilling the promise completely confidential, reliable, trustworthy expertise and information. Developing visibility to generate new business leads. Leveraging from a single pool of expertise into multiple revenue generation opportunities: retainer consulting, project consulting, market research, and market research published reports. 2. 0 Company Summary Progressive Consulting is a new company providing high-level expertise in international high-tech business development, channel development, distribution strategies, and marketing of high tech products. It will focus initially on providing two kinds of international triangles: Providing United States clients with development for European and Latin American markets. Providing European clients with development for the United States and Latin American markets. As it grows it will take on people and consulting work in related markets, such as the rest of Latin America, and the Far East, and similar markets. As it grows it will look for additi... ... 1995 1996 1997 ____________________________________________________________________ Gross margin 72.97% 85.81% 84.90% Net profit margin 4.57% 11.25% 14.92% Return on Assets 12.38% 20.64% 25.49% Return on Equity 50.05% 61.73% 51.37% Activity Ratios: AR Turnover 6.30 7.77 6.66 Collection days 29 45 45 Inventory Turnover 0.00 0.00 0.00 Accts payable turnover 7.67 7.06 7.35 Total asset turnover 2.71 1.83 1.71 Debt Ratios: 1995 1996 1997 ____________________________________________________________________ Debt to net Worth 3.04 1.99 1.02 Short-term Debt to Liab. 0.70 0.82 0.83 Liquidity Ratios: Current Ratio 1.91 1.83 2.39 Quick Ratio 1.91 1.83 2.39 Net Working Capital $104,050 $191,250 $340,450 Interest Coverage 4.15 5.90 9.38

The Future of Work Motivation Theory

Introduction to Special Topic Forum: The Future of Work Motivation Theory Author(s): Richard M. Steers, Richard T. Mowday, Debra L. Shapiro Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jul. , 2004), pp. 379-387 Published by: Academy of Management Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/20159049 . Accessed: 25/04/2011 09:09 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp.JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=aom. . Each copy of any part of a J STOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Academy of Management is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Academy of Management Review. http://www. jstor. org ? Academy o? Management Review 2004, Vol. 29, No. 3, 379-387. INTRODUCTIONTO SPECIAL TOPIC FORUMTHEFUTURE WORKMOTIVATION OF THEORY RICHARDM. STEERS RICHARD T. MOWDAY University o? Oregon DEBRA L. SHAPIRO University of Maryland motivation The topic of employee plays a cen tral role in the field of management? both prac see motiva and theoretically. tically Managers tion as an pa rt of the performance integral equation searchers block at all see re levels, while organizational it as a fundamental building been. an overview This introduction represents of the field of work motivation from a theoretical and lays the foundation for the arti standpoint cles The that the Latin on this (mover?. Building as â€Å"the motivation Atkinson defines concept, on direc influence (immediate) contemporary for movement follow. 2 term motivation derives from word in the development of useful theories of effective the Indeed, management practice. of the sub many topic of motivation permeates the study of management, fields that compose man teams, performance including leadership, decision ethics, making, It is not surprising, change. so much that this topic has received over the past several in both decades journals and management periodicals. xam recent articles have several work far we have come in researching agement, managerial and organizational therefore, attention rese arch Whereas of action† tion, vigor, and persistence (1964: 2), while it as â€Å"a process Vroom defines governing †¦ among choice made alternative by persons forms of voluntary (1964: 6). Campbell activity† and Pritchard that suggest motivation dependent the direction, has to do with a set of independent/ variable that explain relationships amplitude, and persistence of an ined how on where this special forum focuses motivation, we are going. That the questions: is, we ask is the future of work motivation What theories? are What the critical be that must questions if progress in the field is to be made? addressed is the future research What How can agenda? we or modify current models extend of work so they continue in the motivation to be relevant are entirely new models future? And where to further our understanding motivation needed of employee behavior and job performance contemporary organizations? To understand where the field first understand ever, we must is going, where how it has of in ndividual's constant behavior, holding fects of aptitude, skill, and understanding task, and the constraints operating in the the ef of the envi ronment (1976: 63-130). These and other definitions have three com mon denominators. con They are all principally or events cerned with factors that energize, over time. and sustain human behavior channel, In various ways, of work theories contemporary motivation to explicate derive from efforts with increasing precision to determine terrelate how these behavior three factors in organizations. inEARLYDEVELOPMENTS IN MOTIVATION THEORY The earliest man motivation to understanding hu approaches date from the time of the Greek and focus on the concept of hedo We review cial are panel forum. indebted to the time staff and of AMR effort and to the editorial of this spe for their on behalf philosophers 2 1 For motivation, recent see reviews Kanfer of the research literature on work and For a more detailed examinati on see Pinder of the evolution Porter, of work and (1990), Mitchell (1997), Ambrose motivation Steers theories, (2003). (1998) and Bigley,Kulik (1999),and Mitchell and Daniels (2002). 379 380 Academy of Management Review July a principle force in behavior. driving seen as focusing were Individuals their efforts on seeking and avoiding This pleasure pain. was later refined and further devel principle in the works of philosophers like Locke, oped nism as Bentham, Mill, and eighteenth Toward issue and Helvetius, centuries. in the seventeenth nism of the past. outcomes would actions tend to this past would that led to positive tend to be repeated, whereas outcomes that led to negative Past actions Thorndike he end of the nineteenth the century, to migrate of motivation from the began to the newly realm of philosophy sci emerging ence of psychology. Challenges immediately arose over the use of hedonism as the basis for the study of motivation. donism had no that clear-cut were specificat ion pleasurable or (1911) re of effect, while Hull was that effort or motivation (1943) suggested largely determined by drive X habit. Skinner later built on these (1953) and others con with the introduction of op? rant principles to by some as reinforcement (referred ditioning ferred to diminish. s the law theories), arguing learn contingent and their that, over relationships and consequences future behavior. guide to thrive individuals time, actions between that these contin As Vroom explains, he of the painful, type or of even events how gencies models vehicles continue these events could be determined for a particular nor did it make clear how persons individual; of ways of attaining their conceptions acquired pleasure pain might the hedonistic or pain, or how be modified assumption the by or source of pleasure In short, experience. no empirical con has or understanding as well job performance, various management performance 2003). (e. g. , Komaki, While psychologists Reinforcem ent as explanatory today work motivation and as in the workplace in programs tent and was untestable (1964: 10). scientists search As a result, behavioral began to ex for more based models ing empirically plain motivation. were these early models instinct the Among as those proposed ories, such by James, Freud, and McDougall. Instead these rational, highly much behavior resulted as McDougall â€Å"an tion inherited which attention an or innate determined ere on in focusing were on stincts and drives, managers focusing more pragmatic issues. A key development here was the work of Frederick and his col Taylor move in the scientific management leagues ment. industrial engineering of (1911), along with many background, Taylor on the in his associates, focused his attention in an increas efficiencies of factory production Coming ingly posed industrialized a new and workers age. These colleagues pro to paternalistic approach that relied on a combination from an that argued from instinct, defined by f viewing theorists behavior as psychological its possessor of a certain excitement predisposi to perceive, of an class, a partic object, manner to or pay experience ular quality and to act to, objects emotional upon in regard such perceiving to it in a particular (1908: 4). James cluded jealousy, identified a list of such instincts sociability, that in managing of job training, incentive pay-for-performance tech selection systems, employee improved and the intro niques, job redesign, including duction of ergonomics.Far from being exploit saw ative in intent, Taylor and his associates as an economic to scientific boon management the use both workers and management through in of improved manufacturing techniques, re and creased shared operating efficiency, the subsequent rise of an in workforce, creasingly sophisticated coupled to maximize with efforts company productivity re without increasing simultaneously employee wards. However, to discredit served this sys wards, ev entually to the widespread rise of unioniza tem, leading in the 1930s. ion efforts social scientists and managers Meanwhile, to consider the role of social influences began on behavior in the 1930s. The role of group dy as com to view employees namics and the need plex beings ences were with multiple as recognized motivational powerful influ influences locomotion, curiosity, and sympathy. fear, as in around the 1920s, however, Beginning to creased of the theory limitations began to be replaced instinct theories emerge, began on drive or reinforcement.Led based by models as Thorndike, Wood by such psychologists worth, the theorists introduced and Hull, drive in motivated of learning and behavior or fu that decisions concerning present posited are ture behaviors influenced largely by the concept with past of rewards associated consequences to this as hedo behavior. (1954) referred Allport 2004 Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro 381 re these Best noted among performance. are Mayo's and Roeth search endeavors (1933) Bendix and Dickson's (1939) works. isberger of this contribution summarized the principle movement that human relations by observing as human to treat workers the â€Å"failure beings on came poor in and, thus, has found considerable popularity on individual to work factors relating research motivation. and their col While Maslow and McClelland on the role of individual differ focused leagues in motivation, (1966; Herzberg, Herzberg to under & Snyderman, Mausner, 1959) sought activities how work of and the nature stand and performance. ne's job influence motivation ar In his motivation-hygiene theory, Herzberg is largely influenced that work motivation gued a job is intrinsically to which the extent chal by for recogni and provides opportunities lenging saw the con tion and reinforcement. Herzberg a job (which he referred text surrounding to as as being in far more factors) temporal hygiene terms of leading to satisfaction and future moti vation. Herzberg de serves credit for introducing the field to the role of job design? specifically, a key factor in work motiva job enrichment? s tion and Hackman extended work job attitudes. and Oldham this line of In subsequent work, have (1976) and others as it relates to research ences to be regarded craftsmanship, as the cause of low morale, and con unresponsiveness, fusion† (1956:294). McGregor (1960) later built on this in his classic early work, The Human Side mo been prin with of Enterprise. new models of work By the 1950s, several tivation emerged, have which collectively to as conten? since their referred theories, to identify aim was factors associated cipal is Maslow's here motivation.Included need (1954) that, as suggests hierarchy theory, which their way individuals up a develop, they work on the fulfillment of a series of based hierarchy needs, including physiological, and esteem, security, belongingness, that the first Maslow self-actualization. argued on the list represent thre e needs deficiency before needs that people must master they can into a healthy while the personality, develop to two represent needs that relate growth of and the development achievement individual human Alderfer (1972) later adapted potential. o encompass exis this model just three needs: last tence, relatedness, A second need introduced growth. theory of the same (1938) but more by Murray and era, first prioritized safety and and motivation, design, job performance, Deci while others, (1975; Ryan & Deci, including theories 2000), have articulated focusing specif versus on task-based intrinsic extrinsic ically in motivation factors (e. g. , self-determination theory). fully de veloped by McClelland (1961, 1971), ignored the THE â€Å"GOLDENAGE† OF WORK MOTIVATION THEORIES n the mid to 1960s, a new approach Beginning the study of work motivation which emerged, on delineating focused the processes underly contrast Process theories ing work motivation. content with the earlier theories, which sharply on identifying focused factors associated with in a relatively motivation static environment. view work motivation Process theorists from a dynamic tionships to human and look for causal rela perspective across as they relate time and events in the workplace. ehavior to the process is a series Central theory genre of cognitive motivation theories of that collec to understand the thought pro tively attempt cesses in determining that people go through to behave theories on and focused instead of a hierarchy concept of an array of distinct the motivational potency achieve defined and clearly needs, including and autonomy. McClel ment, affiliation, power, at any given individuals land argued time, that, that often needs several possess competing serve to motivate when activated.This behavior contrasts notion of a steady pro with Maslow's over time up a hypothetical gression hierarchy as individuals grow and mature. By far, most of on in McClelland's model focuse d the attention (defined as behavior of with a standard directed toward competition as a need to and power excellence) (defined over one's environment). have control McClel the needs for achievement a land's conceptualization offered researchers as they related to set of clearly needs defined to Maslow's in contrast behavior, workplace more abstract for conceptualizations (e. g. , need versus achievement need for self-actualization) n the workplace. In our view, the the late 1960s and generated during 1970s make this period of a early something theories. Never â€Å"golden age† of work motivation never since has before and, some would argue, how 382 Academy of Management Review July in explicating been made the progress of work motivation. etiology best known of the cognitive theories Perhaps is expectancy (or expectancy-valence) theory. from the early work Expectancy theory derives saw be of Lewin (1938) and Tolman (1959), who havior based as purposeful, on conscious and lar gely goal directed, intentions. Vroom (1964) pre formulation of ex systematic o much several models emerging ences on work motivation of cross-cultural influ and job performance & of 1982; Earley, 1997; Steers (Bhagat & McQuaid, 2001; Triandis, Sanchez-Runde, 1995). to expectancy In addition theory, a number other theories of work moti important cognitive vation have been since the 1960s, developed its own focus. Adams each with (1963), for exam ple, how em equity theory to explain both cognitively and behavior ployees respond to perceived in the workplace unfairness ally & Colwell, 2003, and Weick, (see also Mowday introduced sented the first to the workplace. ectancy theory as it related He argued that employees tend to rationally various evaluate work behaviors on-the-job those be harder) and then choose (e. g. , working haviors believe will lead to their most val they ued work-related rewards and outcomes the attractiveness Thus, promotion). ular task and the energy invested a g reat deal on the extent pend employee to valued Porter believes outcomes. and its accomplishment (e. g. , a of a partic in it will de to which the will lead & Maruyama, that 1976). Adams Bougon, argued both conditions of underpayment and overpay can ment influence behavior.Re subsequent cent work on procedural and distributive justice further develops this area using the fundamen tal concept of equity and its consequences (Cro & Rupp, 2003; Folger, 1986; Greenberg, panzano & McFarlin, 1993; Sweeney 1993). in the late Goal-setting theory also emerged as researchers to discover that the 1960s, began simple hanced Steers showed goal act of specifying en for behavior targets task performance 1968, 1996; (Locke, in this arena & Porter, 1974). Research and specificity, goal difficulty, to enhance each served task on numerous Based empiricalLawler Vroom's (1968) expanded to recognize the role of individual initial work differences abilities and skills) (e. g. , employee in linking and role clarity job job effort to actual Porter and performance. the relationship between Lawler also clarified and sub performance that this relation satisfaction, sequent arguing of the ship is mediated by the extent and quality in exchange receive rewards for employees job performance. a Finally, feedback that goal commitment Porter and to recog incorporated loop nize learning about past relation by employees in the That is, if superior ships. erformance to lead to superior failed future rewards, past effort may suffer as incentives and the employee in the employee's reward system lose credibility good Lawler eyes. performance. Locke and Latham studies, (1990) subsequently a formal theory of goal setting. proposed Earley a time dimension to and Erez (1991) later added this Rosse topic by on examining motivation, the role of cognitive and processing while Crown a number its initial of Since publication, or further refine to extend have worked scholars to re the basic framework expectancy cognitive research and new theo flect emerging findings retical developments 1990; Mitch (e. . , Kanfer, For example, ell, 1997). expectancy theory has to study forms of work behavior been used other than job performance, ab including employee citizen and organizational turnover, senteeism, Porter, & 1977; Mowday, (Mobley, ship behavior 1973; Steers, 1982; Organ, 1988; Porter & Steers, have also Steers & Rhodes, 1978). Researchers and social influences linked group expectations to individual decisions work motivation (Porter, Lawler, ancy & Hackman, principles have basic expect 1975). Finally, into been incorporated the role of group goals, in (1995) examined on performance. o individual addition goals, of goal-setting Applications theory in the form of individual and team management-by-objectives are now used widely in programs throughout (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999). dustry saw significant this period Finally, develop on the role of social ments focusing cognition on behavior and self -efficacy and performance as Bandura such researchers by leading a social Bandura (1977a,b, 1997). cog proposed nitive that self-confidence suggesting theory, to lies at the heart of an individual's incentive a major act or to be proactive. fter Indeed, on social review of the research literature cog nition and self-efficacy, and Luthans Stajkovic for the (1998, 2003) found considerable support in determining role of self-efficacy work as moder related particularly performance, ated by task complexity and locus of control. 2004 Sfeers, Mowday, and Shapiro 383 Based posed place izational research, this extending a model through behavior. on this Luthans concept labeled (2001) has pro into the work positive organ An outside this situation in the subject cause it is no izations) observer that either rom conclude might we have lost interest be of work motivation (perhaps in organ issue longer a pressing or that we solved the work motivation the con con its RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN WORK MO TIVATION Many and 1970s and pool cated nessed of the have ideas emerging from the 1960s been subsequently to reflect an further developed and more of research findings research a series methods. extended thereby eliminating problem long ago, for additional work. Neither of these need seems the clusions On very plausible. economy, trary, and e-commerce, dot. oms, as the more ization (as well facturing is force and service in the new replete increased traditional a motivated a with global manu work Indeed, of refinements and extensions For expanded sophisti the 1980s wit of researchers existing example, in conceptual made great strides developments on social and empirical work learning focusing on in new work focusing theory, as they did systems, innovation and justice, punishment, procedural on work influences and cross-cultural creativity, behavior. interest However, by the 1990s, intellectual in work motivation least as mea theory? t goal-setting theory, job design, sured cline sid er by journal precipitously. the number articles publications? seemed As evidence of theoretical of to de this, con to be reward theories. hallmark of frequently MIT econo Indeed, competitive advantage. over a de mist Lester Thurow (1992) observed cade that successful (and ago companies countries) principally nology vated will on compete the quality their human in the future their based tech of both resources. firms), as cited A moti and a critical workforce becomes strategic in such asset then, has Why, competition. so little intellectual there been focus activity we have ing on this important topic? Perhaps the breakthrough ideas that can yet to develop level of understanding. push us to the next on work mo While theoretical developments tivation in recent have declined may years, the world ? f work has changed dramatically. one can argue that the past decade Indeed, has witnessed other than any are both Companies and expanding (often at downsizing or levels in different the same divisions time, is character of the hierarchy). The workforce ized by increased with diver diversity highly and demands.Information technol gent needs both the manner ogy has changed frequently and location tional forms of work (such now published over the past decade journals & Kulik, & 1999, or Mitchell find few articles that You will Daniels, 2002). in focus on genuine theoretical developments see minor area. exten will this Instead, you empirical) science havioral see Ambrose (e. g. , sions, tests, or applications empirical ing theories. While clearly helpful, to breakthrough leads developments of exist this hardly in our (as opposed in leading greater decade workplace in memory. changes of the principles understanding underlying work motivation.At the same of time, a review recent in the the most editions of textbooks field of management and organizational be havior that most of the theories dis reveals cussed date from the 1960s and 1970s, with to more recent work. references only fleeting curious that some early motivation (It is also theories been widely that have subsequently to permeate continue discredited such texts. ) In short, while of management other fields negotiations, tion design) decision (e. g. , leadership, making, and teams, and organiza groups to develop continue conceptually, substantive theoretical focus developments on work motivation have not kept pace. ng research activities. as those New found Teams organiza in e-com are re merce) are commonplace. as of hierarchy, distributions. of power is on the rise. Managing workers contingent to perplex continues workers expe knowledge across rienced managers industries. divergent And globalization of man and the challenges defining traditional the notion aging stead across borders are now the norm in of the exception. as well The use 3 See 2003) focusing a key strategic mance. a special on issue the asset o? Harvard Business Review (January as of employee motivation importance in competition and corporate perfor 84 Academy of Management Review July can have a profound These changes influence on how companies to attract, retain, and attempt motivate their employees. Yet we lack new mod in of guiding behavior capable managerial this new era of work. As Cappelli â€Å"Most notes, observers of the corporate world believe that the traditional between and relationship employer is gone, but there is little understand employee it ended and even is less about what ing of why els that relationship† We believe (1999: 1). our intellec to redirect time has come new models? and into discovering tual energies new models? f work motiva research toward commensurate tion and with job performance replacing that the this new era. tions work plete, more theories. more for developing complex motivation that are more valid, broader useful in scope, and, to practitioners theories of more com by implication, than existing In the second, Yitzhak Fried and Linda Haynes examine in which ti me factors can Slowik ways influence and job perfor processes goal-setting mance in work that organizations. They argue the addition of time as a key variable in goal and validity setting theory adds to its dynamism in helping in in behavior explain employee creasingly environments. omplex, continually evolving work THE ROAD AHEAD With this for papers motivation. in mind, in 2001 AMR issued a call on the topic of the future of work was A special seminar held at the Next, Myeong-Gu Seo, Lisa Feldman Barrett, and Jean M. Bartunek draw on both psychologi cal and neurobiological of core affec theories a set of direct and tive experiences to identify indirect paths affec through which work-related can influence tive feelings three dimensions of behavioral and direction, intensity, to direct In addition af influence, persistence. an also influence behavior fective experiences on goal level their effects indirectly, through and goal commitment, as well of motivation as on components judgme nt expectancy, utility, and progress. L. Ackerman Ruth Kanfer and Phillip then use to fa and adult development theories life-span an understanding cilitate of the implications of on workplace motivation. aging aging Although as leading to declining is generally viewed cog nitive these au and intellectual capabilities, thors argue that this view may be overly sim is a more that aging Instead, plistic. hey argue in which process, cognitive complex declining are accompanied in other abilities by growth intellectual of motives abilities, reorganization traits. and goals, and changing personality mo how aging influences Fully understanding a comprehensive tivation, therefore, requires com of the different and often understanding taking changes this, Naomi Following and S. Alexander Gilder, pensatory place. Ellemers, Haslam Dick de use self the key to relating outcomes: of the Academy of Manage 2001 annual meeting ment to stimulate in the interest and discussion to the call, researchers I n response sub topic. ere mitted subse which papers, fifty-six of space reviewed. quently the journal, many papers worthy accommodated. However, following view six papers emerged cycles, offer new and useful ideas and future directions of the topic. What these for the theoretical In view could limitations not multiple that seem insights development of be re to into in common is a have papers on existing to build of effort theories genuine work motivation and extending by adapting con of the changing them to fit the realities is temporary Today's workplace workplace. hort-term characterized by an increasingly variable, performance among increasing employ interdependence ees in some form of team (often manifested to affective responses evolving organization), the workplace value increasing experience, on the part of employees, conflicts and motive nature of the transitory and a clear recognition focus, of careers. time as a critical six papers a variety address our understanding The t ivation Edwin A. Locke in this special issue appearing to advancing of issues critical of motivation theory and mo social pro categorization theory and identity cesses to examine in which ndividual the ways to determine interact work and group processes in organizations motivation. The fact that work around increasingly organized to understand it is important gests influence how work is teams how sug groups The first paper, by on focuses P. Latham, on work moti of metatheories the development six recommenda vation. These authors present in the workplace. and Gary motivation. Their paper can have in groups participation explores a power 2004 Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro 385 on motivation ful influence can be understood what by on individual-level effects. Finally, Hugo lines of research the influences and bove focusing and beyond Crown, D. F. , & Rosse, J. G. 1995. Yours, through mine the and ours: exclusively several Deci, Facilitating of individual and Human group productivity and g roup goals. Decision Processes, motivation. Organizational 64: 138-150. New York: social across integration Behavior M. Kehr synthesizes on motivation by E. L. 1975. Intrinsic P. C. 1997. Face, Plenum. structure: cultures. An New of explicit and on motivation abilities perceived model. using a compensatory workplace answer some model intriguing, helps solved examining implicit motives in the Kehr's unreEarley, of organizational analysis York: Oxford University Earley, P. C, and & Erez, norms: models. M. and harmony, behavior Press. 1991. Time role Journal of dependency effects processing of on 76: individual questions concerning goal at tainment and why self-set goals may sometimes be nonmotivating. to the these papers contribute Throughout, research and theo long tradition of substantive in the field of work motiva retical development tion that benefit both organizational researchers and practicing alike. managers goals motivational 717-727. 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Work motivation. Bulletin, F. , & Dickson, Cambridge, K. E. Bougon, context. M. G. , & Maru yama, Behavior J. 1939. Management Harvard University mance, Organizational 15: 32-65. Richard College California cultural Richard quist M. Steers is the Kazumitsu University His current Shiomi of Oregon. research Professor He received of Business, at Irvine. of Management his Ph. D. from in the Lundquist the University of and cross focuses on employee motivation management. T. Mowday is the Gerald B. Bashaw Professor of Management received his and research in the Lund Ph. D. on from leadership the of Business, College at of California University in organizations. University Irvine andHe of Oregon. focuses his teaching Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro Debra ment L. Shapiro, the Willard Graham of Manage Professor formerly Distinguished at UNC-Chapel is now professor of management in the and organization Hill, R. H. Smith School at College of Business, of Maryland Park, and a member University of the Academy of Management's Board of Governors. She her Ph. D. received from conflict Her Univ ersity. in organizations that the cross-cultural challenges research tend of managing focuses on issues regarding employee how to motivate to manage behaviors and Northwestern unproductive conflict effectively.

Ethical Health-care issue †Abortion Essay

Abortion is the induced termination of a pregnancy after conception. There are different ways in which an abortion can occur. Spontaneous abortions are usually termed as miscarriage. Miscarriage that happens between 8 to 22 weeks is due to incorrect replication of chromosomes, and it can be caused by environmental factors. Stillbirth and premature-birth are not considered miscarriage and it happens after 22 weeks and before 37 weeks of gestation. Therapeutic abortion is another type. It is an abortion induced to preserve the health of the pregnant female or avoid any complication that might happened to fetus during the gustation or thereafter. Therapeutic abortions are two types: Medical abortion and surgical abortion, while an abortion induced for any other reasons is termed and elective abortion. Abortion allows women to put an end to their pregnancies, but involve destruction of the under-developed embryo or fetus. For this reason, it is a controversial subject not only in America but also all over the world and stand divided calling themselves as pro-life, and pro-choice. In America, it has become so indoctrinated that one political party identify itself with pro-life, while the other party identify it with pro-choice. History of abortion: In Persian Empire abortifacients were known, and criminal abortions were severally punished there. Abortions were practiced in Greek and in Roman Empire. The Ephesian, appears to have been opposed to Rome’s free-abortion practice. This is a contra indication to the Hippocratic oath that stood so long as the ethical guide of medical profession that bears the name of great Greek. The content of the oath is this: I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it, nor will I make a suggestion to the effect. Similarly, I will not give to a woman an abortive remedy. Even now it represent the highest of the development of strict ethical concept in medicine. That brings-up a question, why then it did not dissuade the abortion practice in his -own time and that of the Roman Empire. Late Dr. Edelstein is the one who shed light into this confusion. According to him only one school of thinking, out of many in existence, known as Pythagorean school thought that embryo was animate from the moment of conception, and an abortion meant destruction of a living being. However, most Greek thinkers, on the other hand, did not think so, and commended abortion and practiced it. The conclusion of Dr. Edelstein is that the oath did not represent the whole section of the society, nor did it was accepted by all ancient physicians. Medical writing down to Galen (A.D130-200) give evidence of the violation of almost every one of its injunctions, and it is very convincing. Development of Abortion Law The common law practiced prior to 1803, did not consider abortion performed before quickening-the first recognizable movement of the fetus in utero, appearing usually from 10th to the 18 weeks of pregnancy, as an indictable offence. Keep in mind English Statutory Law had a slow progression. The first criminal abortion act came into being in 1803, which made it a capital crime, but lessor punishment was awarded, if it is done before quickening. It continued to be so in the general revision of 1828. The criminal abortion act disappeared together with the death penalty in 1837, and did not reappear in the offences against person act of 1861. In 1929, the infant life preservation act came into being. It made an intentional act performed with the motivation, a felony. However, it contained a proviso that a person was to be found guilty of the offence only if it is evidentially found that the act that caused the death of child was not done in good faith for the purpose only of preserving the life of the mother. In 1967, the parliament enacted the Abortion Act of 1967. It allowed abortions, if two physicians agree: That the pregnancy is a risk to the life or of injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant women or any children of her family, greater than if the pregnancy was terminated. 2. Or there was a substantial risk that the child will be born with physical or mental abnormalities. Development of abortion Law in America Until the mid 19th century, English law was practiced in America. In 1821 Connecticut enacted the first abortion legislation in line with English law, but abortion before quickening was made a crime only in 1860. In 1829, New-york enacted a legislation, barring unquicken fetus as well as quicken fetus. It made the former a misdemeanor, and the later second-degree manslaughter. It also introduced a new concept of therapeutic abortion by which abortion will be excused if it is done to preserve the life of the mother. After the war between states legislation began to replace the common law. All these laws retained the quickening distinction, and maintained the punishment on that basis. Gradually in the middle of the 19th century, the quickening distinction disappeared from most of the state legislation and penalties were increased. By the end of 1950, a large majority state banned abortion, unless done to save or preserve the life of the mother. However, the state started to liberalize abortion statute after the ALI model penal code s230.3, set forth as Appendix B to the opinion in Doe V Botton, post, p.205. various courts in the country found various abortion laws unconstitutional while at the same time some courts found them constitutional and legal. In 1973, the Supreme Court of America, in Roe v Wade entered a finality of decision by interpreting the laws with respect to abortion in the light of the various provision of the Constitution of America, which even today is considered a land mark decision that provides the guide line to the principles of abortion and the rights and duties of the individual and the state. Ethical principles as the foundation of Law Respect for individual autonomy, beneficence (helping others), Non maleficence (not harming others), and Justice and fairness are some of the Ethical principles that form the very basis for the foundation of law in the society. It will be interesting to analyze as to how the ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, and justice and fairness have influenced the issue of Abortion in this contemporary society. Autonomy and Abortion Autonomy means the right to decide about something. Autonomy includes informed consent, confidentiality of information, truth telling and promise keeping. Reproductive autonomy means the right of the woman in taking part or participating in the process of decision making relating to the family planning matters, instead of the men, religious authorities or the state deciding it for them. Reproductive autonomy has also relevance in the context of social development and changes in the family structure for over 50 years. Autonomy means the right to have a choice without any external influence or interference by another person or institution, but also the moral responsibility. The moral responsibility does not interfere with freedom of choice but rather it is the approach to freedom. Freedom without responsibility is egoism, but responsibility without freedom is force. The 14th Amendment to the Constitution Guarantee this autonomy by introducing the concept of due process of law. This is the foundation upon which the court embarked upon when the court said that the right of privacy/autonomy is broad enough to encompass a women’s decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy. Beneficence and Abortion By beneficence, it means happiness to many. Abortion can be viewed from different ethical -standpoint. One of such view is utilitarianism. The morale behind the rule of utilitarianism is the highest amount of happiness for the largest amount of people. Based on the empirical evidence, utilitarianism support wide spread happiness of many. Analyzing abortion in this context, one can see the medical, social, and economic benefit, it brings to the great amount of people in the society. The following is some of the statistics: * Half of all the pregnancies in the U.S are unintentional and  ½ of these are terminated by medically safe legal abortions. * From 1973 to 2000, more that 39 million legal abortions occurred * By legalizing abortion, the largest decline in birth rate were seen among women over 35 years, teenagers, and unmarried women (Levine, et. el,1999) * Today 30% of abortions are done on women over 35 years. * If legal abortions were not available, more women would experience of unwanted child bearing, which will affect the entire family. Their emotional and psychological life will be affected. * Couples become willing to conceive without fear of genetic disorders. In such an even, they can avail the process of safe legal abortion. * Most women report a sense of relief after the abortion, although a few would report depression. Justice & fairness and Abortion Justice is the establishment of the principles of fairness. When one think about justice, in terms of equality, it has to be speaking about equal economic rights, equal educational and employment opportunities, equal divorce and child custody laws, and a uniform standard of sexual behavior as also the suffrage. The reasons for this call for justice is the understanding that men and women were invested with the same capabilities and the same consciousness of responsibility for their existence. When one think about justice in terms of abortion, the following facts are pertinent. * The woman enjoyed better right to terminate a pregnancy than she does in most state prior to 1970s, at least with early stage of pregnancy and why it need be restricted later. * American Medical Association was partially responsible for the anti abortion mood prevalent in the country in the late 19th century, especially in 1967, when the committee on human reproduction urged the adaptation of a stated policy of opposition to the induced – abortion when it is a threat to the mother or child, does not support reason or ethics. * In 1n 1970, APHA recommended 5 standards for abortion. 1. Rapid and simple abortion procedure. 2. Simplifying counseling service. 3. Avoiding psychiatric consultation. 4. A variety -of trained professionals. 5. Awareness about contraceptives and sterilization. Conflicting decision on abortion law by various courts in the country * Those trained in medicine, philosophy and theology are unable to arrive a consensus as to when life begins. * Constitution does not include the unborn as person. In areas other than criminal abortion, the law has been reluctant to endorse any theory that life begins before birth or to accord legal rights to the unborn. * The right of privacy is broad enough to encompass a women’s decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy. However, the state has interest in the 3 areas: health of its subject, a valid medical standard, and legitimate interest in potential life. They are distinct. Each grows as the women approaches term and at a point during pregnancy, each becomes compelling. In the light of the present day medical knowledge the compelling point begins by the end of the 1st trimester. * The state’s important and legitimate interest in potential life, the compelling point is viability because the fetus has the capacity of a meaningful life outside of the mothers womb at this point. * The pregnancy prior to the compelling period can be terminated by the attending physician in consultation with his patient, and upon his or medical judgment, without regulation from the state. Conclusion Given the right to decide about the fate of pregnancy, every woman should be able to decide to terminate the pregnancy within a few weeks from the pregnancy. Woman need not have to prolong that period to 4th week, 9th week, 14th week, 19th week, 24th week, or29th week and so on to decide whether it is an unwanted pregnancy. Every man’s and woman’s right over his or her body does not mean, it is absolute; the exercise of this right should not damage the moral fiber of the community, instead it should bring-about great happiness to great number of its subject. Finally, abortion bring with it physical, emotional, and moral effects or complications which need to be addressed by her together with the help of her strong support system, which could be her friends, group support, work with the counselor, or her supportive family. References Christensen, T. E., & Wallace, O. (September 2012). The Effects of Abortion. Retrieved from http://http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-effects-of-abortion.htm Legal Information Institue, .. (January 1972). Roe v Wade (No 70-18). Retrieved from http://http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0410_0113_ZO.html